Israelites in Sinai

"On the third new moon after the children of Israel departed from the land of Egypt, on this day they came into the wilderness of Sinai. And they departed from Rephidim, and came into the wilderness of Sinai, and tarried in the wilderness, and Israel stopped there against the mountain. And Moses went up to the Mountain of God..." (Exodus 19:1-3). The place of Mount Sinai, where the Israelites came, is usually identified with the area of Gebal Musa or Katharina. Archaeological research to confirm the information of the Book of Exodus began here in the late 1960s, after the Six-Day War brought the peninsula under the control of the State of Israel. The immediate task was to find traces of the presence of 600,000 Israeli soldiers and their families in southern Sinai. Antiquities from the Early Bronze Age, and in the Negev, even the Middle Bronze Age 1, dating from 3150 to 2000 BC, are well represented here. The events described in the Book of Exodus are dated by supporters of the orthodox school to 1446, and adherents of the liberal school to the 1240s, that is, the period of the "Late Bronze Age". However, nothing relating to this era has been found in the Sinai and the Negev. There are no thousands of graves of worshippers of the golden calf here. According to Steven Rosen, the Exodus' account of thirty-eight years of Israelites in the area is not supported in any way. It is also not possible to identify the places mentioned in the Exodus with settlements in the Central Negev. William Dever concludes: "Our detailed knowledge of this small and hostile area today raises questions about the validity of the biblical tradition that "more than one and a half million people wandered here for almost 40 years. Barren terrain and rare oases could support the existence of a few lonely nomads, but no more."

Assyrian Cities and the Chronology of the Book of Genesis

"And there was the beginning of him (Nimrod-A.S.) reigns — Babylon, and Uruk, and Akkad, and Halna in the country of Shinear. Out of this country went Ashur and built Nineveh, and Rehovot-ir, and Kalchu, and Resen between Nineveh and Kalhu; It's a big city..." (Genesis 10:10-13). In a fragment of the Book of Genesis called the "Table of Nations", the Assyrian cities of Nineveh, Rehovot-Ir, Kalakh (Kalhu) and Resen are mentioned. The order of enumeration reflects the degree of their importance. Of these cities, only Nineveh and Calah have been identified through archaeological excavations, the results of which have been summarized by Kirk Grayson. In the 7th century B.C., Nineveh became the capital of the entire Assyrian empire by the decision of King Sannacherib (704-681). According to the conclusion of the English archaeologist, the city was actually rebuilt in a short time and surrounded by a powerful defensive wall. It fell in 612 BC under the blows of a coalition of Medes and Babylonians. Let's turn to Kalakh. In the III and II millennia BC, it was an insignificant center, which experienced an upsurge much earlier than Nineveh, in the 9th century. It was then that the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II made it the capital of Assyria. The city remained the administrative center of the state until about the 700s, when it lost the palm to Nineveh. Now let us pay attention to the order of enumeration of cities in the "Table of Nations". The first there is not Kalakh, but Nineveh. This means that it was the capital of Assyria at the time of the compilation of the Book of Genesis, which in this case dates back to no earlier than the 7th century BC. This is in no way consistent with the Jewish tradition, which dates the Book of Genesis to the time of the reign of King Solomon, i.e. the tenth century. The main city of Assyria at that time was Ashur, which served as the capital from the XIV century, that is, even before Kalah. Meanwhile, according to K. Grayson, the city of Ashur is not mentioned in the Bible at all.

The Book of Genesis: From Abraham to Solomon

"And there was the beginning of him (Nimrod-A.S.) reigns — Babylon, and Uruk, and Akkad, and Halna in the country of Shinear. Out of this country went Ashur and built Nineveh, and Rehovot-ir, and Kalchu, and Resen between Nineveh and Kalhu; It's a big city..." (Genesis 10:10-13). In a fragment of the Book of Genesis called the "Table of Nations", the Assyrian cities of Nineveh, Rehovot-Ir, Kalakh (Kalhu) and Resen are mentioned. The order of enumeration reflects the degree of their importance. Of these cities, only Nineveh and Calah have been identified through archaeological excavations, the results of which have been summarized by Kirk Grayson. In the 7th century B.C., Nineveh became the capital of the entire Assyrian empire by the decision of King Sannacherib (704-681). According to the conclusion of the English archaeologist, the city was actually rebuilt in a short time and surrounded by a powerful defensive wall. It fell in 612 BC under the blows of a coalition of Medes and Babylonians. Let's turn to Kalakh. In the III and II millennia BC, it was an insignificant center, which experienced an upsurge much earlier than Nineveh, in the 9th century. It was then that the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II made it the capital of Assyria. The city remained the administrative center of the state until about the 700s, when it lost the palm to Nineveh. Now let us pay attention to the order of enumeration of cities in the "Table of Nations". The first there is not Kalakh, but Nineveh. This means that it was the capital of Assyria at the time of the compilation of the Book of Genesis, which in this case dates back to no earlier than the 7th century BC. This is in no way consistent with the Jewish tradition, which dates the Book of Genesis to the time of the reign of King Solomon, i.e. the tenth century. The main city of Assyria at that time was Ashur, which served as the capital from the XIV century, that is, even before Kalah. Meanwhile, according to K. Grayson, the city of Ashur is not mentioned in the Bible at all.

Guy and Be'er Sheba

"And Yahweh appeared to Abraham and said, 'To your descendants I will give this country.' And he built there an altar for Yahweh, who appeared to him there. And he rode thence to the mountain east of Beth-El, and pitched his tent. "Beth-El from the west, and Ai from the east, and built an altar there, and called by the name of Yahweh" (Genesis 12:8). J. Callaway notes that the city was inhabited from about 3200 to 2400 B.C. Then it was completely destroyed and abandoned. It was restored around 1200 B.C. No materials from Abraham's time have been found. "And he (Isaac) went up from there to Beersheba. And Yahweh appeared to him that night and said, "I am the God of Abraham your father. Do not be afraid, for I am with you, and I will bless you and multiply your seed for the sake of Abraham my servant." And he built an altar there, and called it after Yahweh, and set up his tent there, and the servants of Isaac dug a well there... And it came to pass that day, and Isaac's servants came and told him about the well they had dug and said to him, "We have found water." And he called him Shiva, therefore to this day the name of the city is Beersheba" (Genesis 26:23-25; 32-34); "And Abraham rebuked Abimelech because of the well of water, which Abimelech's servants had taken away. And Abimelech said, "I don't know who did it, and you didn't tell me either, and I didn't hear it until this day." And Abraham took the ram and the bull, and gave it to Abimelech, and the two of them made a covenant. And Abraham set the seven lambs separately. And Abimelech said to Abraham, "What are these seven lambs which you have set apart?" And he said, "For you will take seven lambs out of my hand, that they may be a testimony to me that I have dug this well." That is why this place is called Beersheba, because there they both swore. And they made an alliance at Beersheba, and Abimelech and Pychol, the captain of his army, arose, and they returned to the land of the Philistines. And he planted tamarisk in Beersheba, and there he called it by the name of Yahweh, the eternal God. And Abraham dwelt in the land of the Philistines long days" (Genesis 21:25-34). The remains of the biblical Be'er Sheba were discovered in the northern Negev region, a few kilometers from the city of Be'er Sheva, which still exists today. The hill that hid the ancient settlement was called: Tel Sheva. The ancient city was built on a low hill near the bank of a river that dries up in summer, but is full-flowing in winter. Such rivers are called "wadi" in Arabic. In the biblical tradition, Beersheba has always been a symbol of Israel's southern border, the territory of which is delineated in the characteristic biblical expression "From Dan to Beersheba". Excavations from 1969 to 1976 revealed layers of different periods: before the Israeli settlement of the Stone Age, the Israeli fortified city that arose at the end of the XII century BC, the city of the Kingdom of Judah, fortresses of the Persian and Roman times. Moreover, in the earliest layers of the settlement, Philistine ceramics were found, which reminds us of the plot of the Book of Genesis associated with the well of Beersheba. It was located at the city gates next to the oldest buildings of the settlement. The head of the excavations, Aharoni, suggested that he had found the same well mentioned in the Book of Genesis. However, it was excavated in a layer dating back to the end of the 12th century B.C. It is impossible to attribute it to an earlier period, and even more so to the time of Abraham – the 21st century B.C. Since the dating clearly contradicted traditional biblical chronology, the Israelite archaeologist could only assume that the patriarchal narratives did not arise until the twelfth century B.C.E., after the Exodus from Egypt and the conquest of Canaan. By the end of the XI century BC, a very peculiar fortification system appeared in Beersheba. The houses were so closely attached to each other on the top of the hill that a solid defensive wall was formed with a narrow opening for the gate. The houses were open inside the settlement, towards the central square, where cattle were kept. The city became fundamentally different in the middle of the 10th century, in the so-called "royal" period of Israel's history. Beersheba in the time of David and Solomon is a large fortified city, the administrative center of the southern part of the state. The territory of the settlement was about 3 hectares, the city received a regular layout, a powerful defensive wall made of mud bricks on a stone plinth, as well as a gate with a four-chamber guard room, typical of Israeli military architecture of that time. Despite a number of reconstructions, the layout of the city was preserved for almost three hundred years. A century later, a new defensive wall replaced the dilapidated old one. Now it was the so-called casemate structure, consisting of two parallel walls, the space between which was divided into small rooms for various purposes. Be'er Shebu of the next, 8th century, can be called a classic example of a provincial border town for the Kingdom of Judah. Its territory was divided into quarters. The main street crossed the city center, and to the outskirts the streets went gradually, rounding parallel to the line of the city wall. They all met in one place - on the square near the gate. Drains were laid under the streets, leading to a central canal under the city gate, which led water to a well outside the city wall. Another impressive water supply system has been established in the northeastern part of the city. Inside the wall, a stone staircase led to a water reservoir carved deep into the rock, which provided the city with water during long sieges. In the eastern part there was a huge, about 600 sq. m., warehouse complex, where thousands of vessels were found, many of which were intended for transporting food. Not far from the city gates stood the ruler's palace with numerous rooms and three large reception halls. It is estimated that in the 8th century BC, the population of Be'er Sheba numbered between 400 and 500 people, including officials and soldiers. The discovery of an altar in situ and parts of it in a later construction testify to the existence of a temple or cult center, which was apparently destroyed during the reform of King Hezekiah. Beersheba was destroyed by the Assyrian king Sannachcherib during a campaign against Judah in 701 B.C. A small poor settlement that arose in the 7th century on the site of the city ceased to exist with the conquest of Judah by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 587-586.

Gerard

"И был голод в стране, такой же, как первый голод, который был в дни Авраама. И пошел Исаак к Авимелеху, царю филистимлянскому в Герар. И призрел на него Яхве, и сказал: "Не ходи в Египет, поселись в Стране, о которой Я скажу тебе. ... И поселился Исаак в Гераре" (Бытие 26:1-2, 6). Герар, отождествляемый с городищем Телль Харор, упоминается в Книге Бытия как город филистимлян. Как известно, они пришли в Ханаан около 1175 гг. до н.э. Египетские источники называют их "Пелест" по имени одного из "народов моря", нашествие которых отбил фараон Рамсес III. Телль Харор, общая площадь которого составляет примерно 1,6 га, был одним из самых крупных поселений Бронзового века в Южном Ханаане. Самый ранний слой, относящийся к XII-XI векам, содержал огромное количество характерной прекрасно украшенной филистимлянкой керамики. Одна из хозяйственных ям дала большую коллекцию бракованных железных изделий, что свидетельствует о производстве здесь железных орудий. Как считает израильский археолог Эльцер Орен, Телль Харор был основан примерно в XVIII веке, существовал он и в эпоху Поздней Бронзы, Железного Века 1-2 и в персидский период. Однако не только строительных остатков, но и никаких находок керамики, которые могли бы датироваться XXI веком до н.э. — временем Авраама — обнаружено не было.

Могила Авраама в Мамре

"И вот время жизни Авраама, которое он прожил: сто семьдесят пять лет. И он преставился и умер в доброй седине, старый и насыщенный днями, и присоединился к своему народу. И похоронили его Исаак и Исмаил, его сыновья, в пещере Махпела на поле Эфрона сына Цохара, хетта, которое перед Мамре, на поле, которое купил Авраам у хеттов; там похоронены Авраам и Сара, его жена" (Бытие 25: 7-11). Могила Авраама в Мамре отождествляется с современным Бэйт Эл-Халил, или Харам Эл-Халил. Раскопки на этом месте выявили остатки двух башен с керамикой IX-VII веков до н.э. По всей видимости, они стояли у входа в священный участок — теменос. Исследования в самом теменосе дали огромное количество керамики XII — IX веков, при том, однако, что никаких строительных остатков этого периода обнаружено не было. Культовый комплекс предполагает бытование легенд, связанных с Авраамом, в IX -VII веках до н.э. Это почти на 300 лет позже колодца Беер-Шевы, что указывает на время формирования традиции о погребении Авраама в Хевроне на протяжении XII — IX веков до н.э.

Боцра

"А вот цари, которые царствовали в стране Эдом до того, как царствовали цари у Сынов Израиля. И царствовал в Эдоме Бела сын Беора, и имя его города Динхава. И умер Бела, и воцарился вслед за ним Йовав сын Зераха из Боцры…" (Исход 36:31-33) Боцру, древнюю столицу государства Эдом, отождествляют с современной деревушкой Базейрах в Северном Эдоме. Этот древний город стоял на страже как царской дороги, главного пути через Транс Иорданию, так и крупнейшей трассы того времени, ведущей к Вади Арабаху, Негеву и далее в Южную Иудею. Раскопки показали, что это был самый крупный укрепленный пункт региона, с монументальными общественными зданиями. Город возник не ранее VIII века до н.э., а основное время его существования охватывало VII — VI века. Приведенный фрагмент Книги Бытия, таким образом, не мог быть составлен до этого периода. Библия сообщает, что Боцра была населена потомками Исава, и они упоминаются как цари Эдома, правившие еще до того, как в Израиле установилась царская власть. Поэтому принятую датировку правления Саула, первого Израильского царя (обычно 1020-1000 годы до н.э.) придется, видимо, существенно корректировать.